"Personal liberties that belong to an individual, owing to his or her status as a citizen or resident of a particular country or community."
The civil rights movement was a mass popular movement to secure for African Americans equal access to and opportunities for the basic privileges and rights of U.S. citizenship. Although the roots of the movement go back to the 19th century, it peaked in the 1950s and 1960s. They pursued their goals through legal means, negotiations, petitions, and nonviolent protest demonstrations. The civil rights movement was largest social movement of the 20th century in the United States. It influenced the modern women's rights movement and the student movement of the 1960s.
The Brown Decision
The 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansasushered in a new era in the struggle for civil rights. This landmark decision outlawed racial segregation in public schools. Whites around the country condemned the decision. In the South such white supremacist groups as the Ku Klux Klan and the Citizens' Council organized to resist desegregation, sometimes resorting to violence. A primary target of supremacist groups was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). One of the first attempts to comply with the Brown decision came in Arkansas's capital city, Little Rock in 1957, when the local school board admitted nine black students to the city's previously all-white Central High School. White protests escalated into violence. President Dwight D. Eisenhower eventually dispatched federal troops to protect the black students. Challenges of Social Segregation
By the time of the Little Rock incident, the nation had become aware of the heightened struggle in the South. In 1955 blacks in Montgomery, Alabama organized a boycott of city buses in protest of the policy of segregated seating, started by the famous Rosa Parks. This boycott lasted 381 days; it succeeded in integrating the seating. It also led to the formation in 1957 of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). This was presided over by a local black minister, Martin Luther King, Jr. King would later become a central leader in the larger civil rights movement. A larger incident in 1960 led to the founding of another important organization, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In that year, four students from the all-black North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College initiated sit-ins at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, N.C. Students from many other southern black colleges followed in their footsteps, bringing about the desegregation of several hundred lunch counters. Soon, many SNCC members joined forces with the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), founded in Chicago in the 1940s. Together they organized the Freedom Riders of 1961, whose objective was to test the 1960 Supreme Court decision Boynton v. Virginia, which had outlawed segregation in interstate transportation terminals. The Freedom Rides were ultimately successful, prompting the U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission to enforce the ruling in Boynton.
The nation's focus then turned to Birmingham, Alabama. Since 1956, the Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth of the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights had been leading the struggle against racial discrimination. For decades, local blacks had faced a steadfast segregationist; Eugene "Bull" Connor, the city's commissioner of public safety. He was chiefly responsible for Birmingham's reputation as the "most thoroughly segregated city in the United States." King arrived in the spring of 1963 and with Shuttlesworth, led nonviolent demonstrations. Connor's use of police dogs and fire hoses against protesters, an act that remains infamous, helped awaken President John Kennedy's administration to the need for civil rights legislation. Following Kennedy's assassination, President Lyndon Johnson maneuvered the Civil Rights Act of 1964 through Congress. Representing a major victory for African Americans, the 1964 legislation outlawed segregation in public places and prohibited racial and gender discrimination in employment practices.
Voting Rights By the mid-1960s most eligible black voters in the South remained disfranchised. Following World War II, African Americans initiated local efforts to exercise the right to vote but faced strong (and sometimes violent0 resistance from whites. Organized initiatives to enfranchise blacks climaxed with the Summer Project of 1964.Targeting Mississippi, where in many counties no blacks were registered to vote, the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) launched a massive and largely unsuccessful voter-registration drive. The voter-registration effort captured the attention of many lawmakers, who began calling for federal voting-rights legislation. Such legislation was enacted following events in Selma, Alabama. King and the SCLC went there in February 1965, hoping to boost a languishing voting-rights drive that had been organized by the SNCC and local blacks. After two failed attempts, King led an 87-km (54-mi) march from Selma to Montgomery. Three activists lost their lives during the Selma demonstrations, but in August 1965, President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act.
Black Power By this time, civil rights activists were turning their attention to race discrimination in the urban North and West. A leading group within the black-power struggle was the Black Panthers. Organized in Oakland, California in 1966, it included among its members the activist and writer Eldridge Cleaver. Probably the best-known figure within the radical wing of the civil rights movement was Malcolm X. He initially emerged from the Nation of Islam organization, also known as the Black Muslims, but later split from the group. By the mid-1970s, however, the black-power movement had faded. It never gained the support of the larger African American population.
The Movement Legacy As late as 1969, 15 years after Brown, only 1 percent of the black students in the Deep South were attending public schools with whites. After a series of legal cases in the late 1960s, the federal courts finally dismantled segregated schools. They required school districts to implement plans, such as school-district rezoning, that would bring black and white schoolchildren and faculty under one roof. In 1971 the Supreme Court upheld school busing as a viable means of meeting integration goals. By this time — after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., in 1968; the rise of black militancy; and discernible gains in black employment opportunities — the civil rights movement had begun losing momentum. Observers maintain that the movement has a mixed legacy. It produced major legislation that reformed American society. It opened up new political, social, and economic opportunities to blacks. Veterans of the movement, however, lament that it fell short of addressing the economic needs of poor Americans.
Key Terms-
Jim Crow Laws:
Laws designed to enforce segregation of blacks from whites
Ku Klux Klan:
A secret organization in the southern U.S., active for several years after the civil war, which aimed to suppress the newly acquired powers of blacks and to oppose carpetbaggers from the North, and which was responsible for many lawless and violent proceedings.
13th Amendment:
Abolished slavery
14th Amendment:
Declared that all persons born or naturalized in the United States were entitled equal rights regardless of their race, and that their rights were protected at both the state and national levels.
15th Amendment:
Citizens cannot be denied the right to vote because of race, color , or precious condition of servitude
Ida B. Wells:
African-American reformer who tried to end lynching, starting at age 19
Lynching:
Murder of an individual by a group or mob
NAACP:
Founded in 1909 to work for racial equality.
Thurgood Marshall:
Chief Lawyer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, first African American Supreme Court Justice.
WPC:
An organization that helped fight Jim Crow Laws.
Rosa Parks:
African-American woman who's arrest sparked the Montgomery bus boycott
President Eisenhower:
President during Little Rock crisis; issued Executive Order 10730
101st Airborne Division:
Army division sent to Little Rock to prevent violence and protect LR 9 from harassment.
Little Rock Nine:
Nine black students who tried to attend CHS, Nine african american students who first integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957.
Greensboro Sit-in:
Black students politely order food from restaurant, not served, sat in place for days & days, gathering supporters.
Woolworth's:
Department store, similar to Target, where the Greensboro Four sat a segregated lunch counter
Bloody Sunday:
A day during the march from Selma to Montgomery during which many marchers were beaten
Sheriff Jim Clark:
Co-leader of Bloody Sunday; brought brutality to his local law enforcement
Edmund Pettus Bridge:
Location of Bloody Sunday - a bridge on which Clark and Cloud would beat Selma marchers
Dred Scott v. Sandford Concluded that no person descended from an american slave had been a citizen. Held Missouri compromise unconstitutional hoping to end the slavery question (1857)
Gratz v. Bollinger The court held that the University of Michigan's use of racial preferences in undergrad admissions violates both the equal protection clause and title VI of the Civil Rights Act (2003)
Loving v. Virginia A white man married a Black man. It is unconstitutional to ban racial marriage (1967)
Reed v. Reed Supreme Court ruled that the administrators of estates cannot be named in a way that discriminates between sexes. After the death of their adopted son, Sally and Cecil sought to be named the administrator of their son's estate; the Reeds were separated. The Idaho Probate Court specified that "males must be preferred to females" in appointing administrators of estates, so Cecil was appointed administrator. In a unanimous decision, the Court held that the law's dissimilar treatment of men and women was unconstitutional
Bakke v. Regents of the University of California Had the highest scores going to Davis but was rejected twice because he is white. Court managed to minimize white opposition to the goal of quality while extending gains for racial minorities through affirmative action (1978)
Lawrence v. Texas The court held that the Texas statute making it a crime for two persons of the same sex to engage in CERTAIN intimate sexual conduct violates Due Process clause. Reverses Bowers v. Hardwick (2002)
Burlington Industries v. Ellerth Court held that employers are vicariously liable for supervisors who create hostile working conditions for those over whom they have authority. Employers may defend themselves against liability by showing that they quickly acted to prevent and correct any harassing behavior and that the harassed employee failed to utilize their employer's protection (1998)
Ward Cove v. Atonio Ward Cove packaging co. employed non white people over black people. Comparisons of race percentages among different job classes could wrongfully blame the employer, since racial discrimination could in reality reflect the racial differences that exist in the labor market at large (1989)
Bowers v. Hardwick The constitution can't confer a fundamental right upon homosexuals to engage in sodomy. Court held the right to commit sodomy did not meet these standards (1986)
Missouri v. Jenkins Court ruled that the 11th Amendment does not apply to an award of attorney's fees against a state. Constituted a reasonable attorney/s fee under the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Awards Acts of 1976 (1995)
Grutter v. Bollinger Gutter was rejected from the University of MIchigan Law School because the Law School takes race into a factor of making admissions decisions. Gutter was white. Court ruled that racial preferences did not violate the equal protection clause because the school wanted to obtain a diverse student body and the race factor allowed them to do so (2003)
Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education Collective Bargaining agreement for race-based layoffs violates the 14th amendment's equal protection clause. Court states layoff preferences incorrectly addressed injurious prior discriminatory hiring practices since denial of a future employment opportunity was not as intrusive as a loss of an existing job (1986)
Plessy v. Ferguson State of Louisiana created law requiring separate railway cars for blacks and whites. State law was in actuality within constitutional boundaries. Justices based decision of separate but equal doctrine. Segregation does not in itself constitute unlawful discrimination (1896)
Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson Vinson sued the Bank after arguing she had been sexually harassed. Court held that title VII was not limited to economic or tangible discrimination - Congress intended to strike at the entire spectrum of disparate treatment of men and women. Court declined to rule on the degree to which businesses could be liable for the conduct of specific employees. Court ruled unanimously on Vinson's side (1986)
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg County Board of Education Court ruled remedial plans were to be judged by their effectiveness, predominately black schools required close scrutiny bu courts, non-contiguous attendance zones were within the courts remedial powers, and no guidelines could be established concerning busing of students to schools (1971)
Brown v. Board of Education Black children were denied admission to public schools attended by whites. Court ruled that racial segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on the minority of children because it is interpreted as a sign of inferiority. Separate but equal is in actuality unequal (1954)
Adarand Constructors, inc. v. Peña Court held that racial classifications whether imposed by federal, state, or local authorities, must pass scrutiny review. Court also states that compensation programs based on disadvantage rather than race would be evaluated under lower equal protection standards (1995)
Sweatt v. Painter Sweatt applied to the University of Texas Law School, state restricted University to whites only. Court unanimously decided that under the equal protection clause, Sweatt must be admitted. Court also found that separation from the majority of Law students harmed students abilities to compete in the legal arena (1950)
Griggs v. Duke Power Company Griggs claimed Duke's policy discriminated against african american employees in violation of title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The intradepartmental transfer policy did violate the act. The standardized test prevented a number of African Americans from being hired and the court concluded that it was illegal for the Duke power company to give job preferences to whites (1971)
Romer v. Evans Amendment 2 of the Colorado State was unconstitutional. Amendment 2 singled out homosexual and bisexual people (1996)
Milliken v. Bradley Segregated schools in Detroit, Michigan. District court ordered desegregation. The court noted desegregation in the sense of dismantling a dual school system did not require any particular racial balance in school, grade, or classroom (1974)
The Slaughter-House Cases The first US Supreme court interpretation of the relatively new 14th Amendment to the constitution. Viewed as a pivotal case in early civil rights law. Protected privileges and immunities (1873)
Executive Order 11246 Prohibits federal contractors and federally assisted construction contractors and subcontractors from discriminating in employment decisions on basis of color, race, religion, sex, or national origin
Voting Rights Act of 1965 Outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African Americans in the U.S.
Civil Rights and Women's Equality in Employment Act, 1991 Designed to guard against discrimination in the workplace. It would allow victims o intentional employment discrimination to receive monetary awards, reduce the burden of proof on workers who believe they've been discriminated against, clarify rules for determining when job practices are discriminatory, outlaw job quotas
Civil Rights Act of 1964 Outlawed major forms of discrimination, especially towards blacks and women. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public
Proposition 209 Cannot use affirmative action in public institutions and cannot consider race, sex, or ethnicity. Proposition 209 was voted into law on 5 November 1996
Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools Petitioner Franklin is a high school student who was sexually abused by a teacher at school. The Supreme Court granted certiorari and held that federal damages are available under Title IX in an action seeking remedies for an intentional violation.The Court looked at the statutory history and concluded that Congress did not intend to limit the remedies available in a suit brought under Title IX (1992)
Civil Rights Act of 1968 The 1968 act expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and as of 1974, gender; as of 1988, the act protects the disabled and families with children. It also provided protection for civil rights workers.
Civil Rights Cases of 1883 The Court held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the enforcement provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 forbids employment discrimination against anyone over the age of 40 years in the United States
Hopwood v. Texas In Hopwood, four white plaintiffs who had been rejected from The University of Texas School of Law challenged the institution's admissions policy on equal protection grounds and prevailed. Court determined that the University could continue to use the racial preferences which had been at issue in the litigation. (19960
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 United States federal law requiring larger employers to provide employees job-protected unpaid leave due to a serious health condition that makes the employee unable to perform his or her job, or to care for a sick family member, or to care for a new child (including by birth, adoption or foster care)
Defense of the Marriage Act (DOMA) of 1996 No state (or other political subdivision within the United States) needs to treat as a marriage a same-sex relationship considered a marriage in another state; the federal government defines marriage as a legal union between one man and one woman
American with Disabilities Act of 1990 A law that prohibits, under certain circumstances, discrimination based on disability. Disability is defined by the ADA as "a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity."
Browder v. Gayle A case heard before a three-judge panel of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama on Montgomery and Alabama state bus segregation laws. The panel consisted of Middle District of Alabama Judge Frank Minis Johnson, Northern District of Alabama Judge Seybourn Harris Lynne, and Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Richard Rives. On June 5, 1956, the District Court ruled 2-1, with Lynne dissenting, that bus segregation is unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment protections for equal treatment.